Chromatography PPT

Chromatography (from Greek χρώμα:chroma, color and γραφειν:graphein to write) is the collective term for a set of laboratory techniques for the separation of mixtures. It involves passing a mixture dissolved in a "mobile phase" through a stationary phase, which separates the analyte to be measured from other molecules in the mixture based on differential partitioning between the mobile and stationary phases. Subtle differences in a compound's partition coefficient result in differential retention on the stationary phase and thus changing the separation.

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Bioinorganic Chemistry PPT

Bioinorganic chemistry is a field that examines the role of metals in biology. Bioinorganic chemistry includes the study of both natural phenomena such as the behavior of metalloproteins as well artificially introduced metals, including those that are non-essential, in medicine and toxicology. Many biological processes such as respiration depend upon molecules that fall within the realm of inorganic chemistry. The discipline also includes the study of inorganic models or mimics that imitate the behaviour or metalloproteins.
As a mix of biochemistry and inorganic chemistry, bioinorganic chemistry is important in elucidating the implications of electron-transfer proteins, substrate bindings and activation, atom and group transfer chemistry as well as metal properties in biological chemistry.

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Organometallic Chemistry PPT

Organometallic chemistry is the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal.[1][2] Since many compounds without such bonds are chemically similar, an alternative may be compounds containing metal-element bonds of a largely covalent character. Organometallic chemistry combines aspects of inorganic chemistry and organic chemistry.

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Crystal Systems PPT

in crystallography, a crystal system or crystal family or lattice system is one of several classes of space groups, lattices, point groups, or crystals. Informally, two crystals tend to be in the same crystal system if they have similar symmetries, though there are many exceptions to this.
Crystal systems, crystal families, and lattice systems are similar but slightly different, and there is widespread confusion between them: in particular the trigonal crystal system is often confused with the rhombohedral lattice system, and the term "crystal system" is sometimes used to mean "lattice system" or "crystal family".

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Main Group elements PPT

In chemistry and atomic physics, main group elements are elements in groups, (periodic columns) whose lightest members are represented by hydrogen, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, and helium as arranged in the periodic table of the elements. Main group elements include elements in groups 1A- 2A and 13 (3A) - 18 (8A) (also known as S and P block elements). Group 12 elements are usually considered to be transition metals, however zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg) share some properties of both groups, and some scientists believe they should be included as main group elements.

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Coordination Chemistry PPT

In chemistry, a coordination complex or metal complex, is a structure consisting of a central atom or ion (usually metallic), bonded to a surrounding array of molecules or anions (ligands, complexing agents). [1] [2] The atom within a ligand that is directly bonded to the central atom or ion is called the donor atom. Polydentate (multiple bonded) ligands can form a chelate complex. A ligand donates at least one pair of electrons to the central atom/ion.

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Noble gas Compounds PPT

All Noble gases are generally inert. But there are some noble gases which are reactive and can form few specific compounds.

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Oxoacids PPT

An oxoacid is an acid that contains oxygen. To be more specific, it is an acid that:

1.contains oxygen
2.contains at least one other element
3.has at least one hydrogen atom bound to oxygen
4.forms an ion by the loss of one or more protons

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Oxides PPT

An oxide is a chemical compound containing at least one oxygen atom as well as at least one other element. Most of the Earth's crust consists of oxides. Oxides result when elements are oxidized by oxygen in air. Combustion of hydrocarbons affords the two principal oxides of carbon, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Even materials that are considered to be pure elements often contain a coating of oxides. For example, aluminium foil has a thin skin of Al2O3 that protects the foil from further corrosion.

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Hydride PPT

Hydride is the name given to the negative ion of hydrogen, H−. Practically, the term hydride has two distinct but overlapping meanings. To most chemists, the term hydride refers to (1) a hydrogen center that formally reacts as a hydrogen anion and (2) hydrogen ligands in metal complexes.[1] A more antiquated meaning of hydride refers to any compounds hydrogen forms with another elements, ranging over most of the periodic table, groups 1–16.

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Phosphazenes PPT

Phosphazenes are a class of chemical compounds in which a phosphorus atom is covalently linked to a nitrogen atom by a double bond and to three other atoms or radicals by single bonds. While other substitutions produce relatively persistent compounds, in organic synthesis the term largely refers to species with three amino substituents bound to phosphorus. The compounds are unusually stable examples of the phosphorane class of molecules and have a remarkable proton affinity. As such, they are one of the eminent examples of neutral, organic superbase.[1] Two examples are hexachlorocyclotriphosphazene and bis(triphenylphosphine)iminium chloride. Phosphazenes are also known as iminophosphoranes and phosphine imides.

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Borazines PPT

Borazine is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula (BH)3(NH)3. In this cyclic compound, the three BH units and three NH units alternate. The compound is isoelectronic and isostructural with benzene. For this reason borazine is sometimes referred to as "inorganic benzene".

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Silicates PPT

A silicate is a compound containing a silicon bearing anion. The great majority of silicates are oxides, but hexafluorosilicate ([SiF6]2−) and other anions are also included. This article focuses mainly on the Si-O anions. Silicates comprise the majority of the earth's crust, as well as most planets and moons. Sand, Portland cement, and thousands of minerals are silicates.

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Silicones PPT

Silicones are inert, synthetic compounds with a wide variety of forms and uses. Typically heat-resistant and rubber-like, they are commonly used in cookware, medical applications, sealants, adhesives, lubricants, insulation, and breast implants.

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Carboranes PPT

A carborane is a cluster composed of boron and carbon atoms. Like many of the related boranes, these clusters are polyhedra and are similarly classified as closo-, nido-, arachno-, hypho-, etc. based on whether they represent a complete (closo-) polyhedron, or a polyhedron that is missing one (nido-), two (arachno-), or more vertices.

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Boranes PPT

In chemistry, a borane is a chemical compound of boron and hydrogen. The boranes comprise a large group of compounds with the generic formulae of BxHy. These compounds do not occur in nature. Many of the boranes readily oxidise on contact with air, some violently. The parent member BH3 is called borane, but it is known only in the gaseous state, and dimerises to form diborane, B2H6. The larger boranes all consist of boron clusters that are polyhedral, some of which exist as isomers. For example, isomers of B20H26 are based on the fusion of two 10-atom clusters.

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Allotropy PPT

Allotropy or allotropism is a behavior exhibited by some chemical elements: these elements can exist in two or more different forms, known as allotropes of that element. In each allotrope, the element's atoms are bonded together in a different manner. Allotropes are different structural modifications of an element.[1] Allotropes should not be confused with isomers, which are chemical compounds that share the same molecular formula but have different structural formulae.

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Transition State Theory PPT

Transition state theory (TST) explains the reaction rates of elementary chemical reactions. The theory assumes a special type of chemical equilibrium (quasi-equilibrium) between reactants and activated transition state complexes.

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Collison Theory PPT

Collision theory is a theory proposed by Max Trautz[1] and William Lewis in 1916 and 1918, that qualitatively explains how chemical reactions occur and why reaction rates differ for different reactions.[2] This theory is based on the idea that reactant particles must collide, but only a certain fraction of the total collisions have the energy to connect effectively and cause the reactants to transform into the products. This is because only a portion of the molecules have enough energy and the right orientation (or "angle") at the moment of impact to break any existing bonds and form new ones. The minimal amount of energy needed for this to occur is known as activation energy. If the elements react with each other, the collision is called successful, but if the concentration of at least one of the elements is too low, there will be fewer particles for the other elements to react with and the reaction will happen much more slowly. As temperature increases, the average kinetic energy and speed of the molecules increases but this only slightly increases the number of collisions. The rate of the reaction increases with temperature increase because a higher fraction of the collisions overcome the activation energy.

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Chemical Kinetics PPT

Chemical kinetics, also known as reaction kinetics, is the study of rates of chemical processes. Chemical kinetics includes investigations of how different experimental conditions can influence the speed of a chemical reaction and yield information about the reaction's mechanism and transition states, as well as the construction of mathematical models that can describe the characteristics of a chemical reaction. In 1864, Peter Waage and Cato Guldberg pioneered the development of chemical kinetics by formulating the law of mass action, which states that the speed of a chemical reaction is proportional to the quantity of the reacting substances.

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Energy Conversion PPT

Energy in a system may be transformed so that it resides in a different state. Energy in many states may be used to do many varieties of physical work. Energy may be used in natural processes or machines, or else to provide some service to society (such as heat, light, or motion). For example, an internal combustion engine converts the potential chemical energy in gasoline and oxygen into heat, which is then transformed into the propulsive energy (kinetic energy that moves a vehicle. A solar cell converts solar radiation into electrical energy that can then be used to light a bulb or power a computer.

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Corrosion PPT

Corrosion is the disintegration of an engineered material into its constituent atoms due to chemical reactions with its surroundings. In the most common use of the word, this means electrochemical oxidation of metals in reaction with an oxidant such as oxygen. Formation of an oxide of iron due to oxidation of the iron atoms in solid solution is a well-known example of electrochemical corrosion, commonly known as rusting. This type of damage typically produces oxide(s) and/or salt(s) of the original metal. Corrosion can also refer to other materials than metals, such as ceramics or polymers, although in this context, the term degradation is more common.

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Electrochemistry PPT

Electrochemistry is a branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution.

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Debye-Hückel theory PPT

The Debye–Hückel equation or Debye–Hückel limiting law, named for its developers Peter Debye and Erich Hückel, provides one way to obtain activity coefficients.[1] Activities, rather than concentrations, are needed in many chemical calculations because solutions that contain ionic solutes do not behave ideally even at very low concentrations. The activity is proportional to the concentration by a factor known as the activity coefficient , and takes into account the interaction energy of ions in the solution.

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Colligative Properties PPT

Colligative properties are properties of solutions that depend on the number of molecules in a given volume of solvent and not on the properties (e.g. size or mass) of the molecules.[1] Colligative properties include: lowering of vapor pressure; elevation of boiling point; depression of freezing point and osmotic pressure. Measurements of these properties for a dilute aqueous solution of a non-ionized solute such as urea or glucose can lead to accurate determinations of relative molecular masses. Alternatively, measurements for ionized solutes can lead to an estimation of the percentage of ionization taking place.

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Chemical Equilibrium PPT

n a chemical process, chemical equilibrium is the state in which the chemical activities or concentrations of the reactants and products have no net change over time. Usually, this would be the state that results when the forward chemical process proceeds at the same rate as their reverse reaction. The reaction rates of the forward and reverse reactions are generally not zero but, being equal, there are no net changes in any of the reactant or product concentrations. This process is called dynamic equilibrium.

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Phase Transformations PPT

The physical properties of all technologically interesting materials are strongly dependent upon their chemical composition as well as their microstructure. The most efficient way of obtaining the desirable microstructure is via accurate control of phase transformations in solids. This science constitutes the basis for chemical synthesis and thermal treatment or sintering in the processing of almost all crystalline solids. The structure resulting from a solid state phase transformation depends intimately on the crystallographic relationship between the Bravais lattices of the initial and product phases, on the elastic moduli of the separate phases, and on the kinetics (or rate) of the transformation.

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Partial Molar Property PPT

A partial molar property is a thermodynamic quantity which indicates how an extensive property of a solution or mixture varies with changes in the molar composition of the mixture at constant temperature and pressure, or for constant values of the natural variables of the extensive property considered. Essentially it is the partial derivative with respect to the quantity (number of moles) of the component of interest. Every extensive property of a mixture has a corresponding partial molar property.

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Free Energy in Chemistry PPT

Free energy may refer to:

Thermodynamic free energy, the energy in a physical system that can be converted to do work, in particular:
Helmholtz free energy, the energy that can be converted into work at a constant temperature and volume
Work content, a related concept used in chemistry
Gibbs free energy, the energy that can be converted into work at a constant temperature and pressure

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Laws of Thermodynamics PPT

The laws of thermodynamics describe the transport of heat and work in thermodynamic processes. These laws have become some of the most important in all of physics and other types of science associated with thermodynamics.[citation needed]

Classical thermodynamics, which is focused on systems in thermodynamic equilibrium, can be considered separately from non-equilibrium thermodynamics. This article focuses on classical or thermodynamic equilibrium thermodynamics.

The four principles (referred to as "laws")

The zeroth law of thermodynamics, which underlies the basic definition of temperature.
The first law of thermodynamics, which mandates conservation of energy, and states in particular that the flow of heat is a form of energy transfer.
The second law of thermodynamics, which states that the entropy of an isolated macroscopic system never decreases, or (equivalently) that perpetual motion machines are impossible.
The third law of thermodynamics, which concerns the entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero temperature, and which implies that it is impossible to cool a system all the way to exactly absolute zero.

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Kinetic Theory of Gases PPT

Kinetic theory (or the kinetic or kinetic-molecular theory of gases) is the theory that gases are made up of a large number of small particles (atoms or molecules), all of which are in constant, random motion. The rapidly moving particles constantly collide with each other and with the walls of the container. Kinetic theory explains macroscopic properties of gases, such as pressure, temperature, or volume, by considering their molecular composition and motion. Essentially, the theory posits that pressure is due not to static repulsion between molecules, as was Isaac Newton's conjecture, but due to collisions between molecules moving at different velocities.

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Point Groups in Chemistry PPT

A point group is a set of symmetry operations forming a mathematical group, for which at least one point remains fixed under all operations of the group. A crystallographic point group is a point group which is compatible with translational symmetry in three dimensions. There are a total of 32 crystallographic point groups, 30 of which are relevant to chemistry. Their classification is based on the Schoenflies notation.

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Symmetry in Chemistry PPT

symmetry in chemistry describes the symmetry present in molecules and the classification of molecules according to their symmetry. Molecular symmetry is a fundamental concept in chemistry, as it can predict or explain many of a molecule's chemical properties, such as its dipole moment and its allowed spectroscopic transitions (based on selection rules such as the Laporte rule). Virtually every university level textbook on physical chemistry, quantum chemistry, and inorganic chemistry devotes a chapter to symmetry.

While various frameworks for the study of molecular symmetry exist, group theory is the predominant one. This framework is also useful in studying the symmetry of molecular orbitals, with applications such as the Hückel method, ligand field theory, and the Woodward-Hoffmann rules. Another framework on a larger scale is the use of crystal systems to describe crystallographic symmetry in bulk materials.

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Molecular Orbital Theory PPT

In chemistry, molecular orbital theory (MO theory) is a method for determining molecular structure in which electrons are not assigned to individual bonds between atoms, but are treated as moving under the influence of the nuclei in the whole molecule.In this theory, each molecule has a set of molecular orbitals, in which it is assumed that the molecular orbital wave function ψf may be written as a simple weighted sum of the n constituent atomic orbitals χi,

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Valance Bond Theory PPT

In chemistry, valence bond theory is one of two basic theories, along with molecular orbital theory, that developed to use the methods of quantum mechanics to explain chemical bonding. It focuses on how the atomic orbitals of the dissociated atoms combine to give individual chemical bonds when a molecule is formed. In contrast, molecular orbital theory has orbitals that cover the whole molecule.

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Spectroscopy PPT

Spectroscopy/spectrometry is often used in physical and analytical chemistry for the identification of substances through the spectrum emitted from or absorbed by them.

Spectroscopy/spectrometry is also heavily used in astronomy and remote sensing. Most large telescopes have spectrometers, which are used either to measure the chemical composition and physical properties of astronomical objects or to measure their velocities from the Doppler shift of their spectral lines.

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Biomolecules PPT

A biomolecule is any organic molecule that is produced by a living organism, including large polymeric molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids as well as small molecules such as primary metabolites, secondary metabolites, and natural products.

As organic molecules, biomolecules consist primarily of carbon and hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, and, to a smaller extent, phosphorus and sulfur. Other elements sometimes are incorporated but are much less common.

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Heterocyclic Compounds PPT

Heterocyclic compounds are organic compounds containing at least one atom of carbon, and at least one element other than carbon, such as sulfur, oxygen or nitrogen within a ring structure.[1] These structures may comprise either simple aromatic rings or non-aromatic rings. Some examples are pyridine (C5H5N), pyrimidine (C4H4N2) and dioxane (C4H8O2). Heterocyclic chemistry is the branch of chemistry dealing with synthesis, properties, and applications of heterocycles. The IUPAC recommends using the Hantzsch-Widman nomenclature to name heterocyclic compounds

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Photochemistry PPT

Photochemistry, a sub-discipline of chemistry, is the study of the interactions between atoms, small molecules, and light (or electromagnetic radiation).[1] The pillars of photochemistry are UV/VIS spectroscopy, photochemical reactions in organic chemistry and photosynthesis in biochemistry.

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Pericyclic Reactions PPT

In organic chemistry, a pericyclic reaction is a type of organic reaction wherein the transition state of the molecule has a cyclic geometry, and the reaction progresses in a concerted fashion. Pericyclic reactions are usually rearrangement reactions. The major classes of pericyclic reactions are:

Electrocyclic reactions
Cycloadditions
Sigmatropic reactions
Group transfer reactions
Cheletropic reactions
Dyotropic reactions

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Organic Synthesis PPT

Organic synthesis is a special branch of chemical synthesis and is concerned with the construction of organic compounds via organic reactions. Organic molecules can often contain a higher level of complexity compared to purely inorganic compounds, so the synthesis of organic compounds has developed into one of the most important branches of organic chemistry. There are two main areas of research fields within the general area of organic synthesis: total synthesis and methodology.

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Reaction mechanism PPT

In chemistry, a reaction mechanism is the step by step sequence of elementary reactions by which overall chemical change occurs.[1]

Although only the net chemical change is directly observable for most chemical reactions, experiments can often be designed that suggest the possible sequence of steps in a reaction mechanism

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Stereochemistry PPT

Stereochemistry, a subdiscipline of chemistry, involves the study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms within molecules. An important branch of stereochemistry is the study of chiral molecules.[1]

Stereochemistry is a hugely important facet of chemistry and the study of stereochemical problems spans the entire range of organic, inorganic, biological, physical and supramolecular chemistries.

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Catalysis PPT

Catalysis is the change in rate of a chemical reaction due to the participation of a substance called a catalyst. Unlike other reagents that participate in the chemical reaction, a catalyst is not consumed by the reaction itself. A catalyst may participate in multiple chemical transformations. Catalysts that speed the reaction are called positive catalysts. Catalysts that slow the reaction are called negative catalysts, or inhibitors. Substances that increase the activity of catalysts are called promoters, and substances that deactivate catalysts are called catalytic poisons

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Natural Products PPT

Natural Products is a barnch of organic chemistry...

A natural product is a chemical compound or substance produced by a living organism - found in nature that usually has a pharmacological or biological activity for use in pharmaceutical drug discovery and drug design. A natural product can be considered as such even if it can be prepared by total synthesis.

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